من طرف Mr.AboZaid الثلاثاء أبريل 28, 2009 3:47 pmMuhammad or Mehmed
Current scholarship is divided on the proper spelling of his name.
Its spelling in Arabic and Ottoman Turkish was consistent: محمد. To
those who consider him to be the father of a modern Egyptian nation,
having modernized the military and infrastructure, he was Muhammad
(Mohammed, etc), the way his name would have been pronounced in Arabic,
the primary language of Egypt. To those who consider him to be an
Ottoman Albanian military leader who used Egypt as his base, creating a
dynasty that spanned far beyond Egypt, he was Mehmed (Mehmet, etc), the
way his name would have been pronounced by him and the other
Turkish-speaking leadership. Again, as his name is written only one way
in Arabic, this distinction is not an issue for writings in Arabic, but
only for those writing in a Roman alphabet.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
[[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]] Early life
Muhammad Ali was born in [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط], in today's [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] (then apart of the [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]) to [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] parents.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط][ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط][ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط][ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط][ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
According to the many French, English and other western journalists who
interviewed him, and according to people who knew him, the only
language he knew fluently was [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط].[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] He was also competent in [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط].[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] The son of a [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] and [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] named Ibrahim Agha, his mother Zainab Agha was his uncle Husain Agha's daughter. Muhammad Ali was the nephew of the "Ayan of [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]"
(Çorbaci) Husain Agha. When his father died at a young age, Muhammad
was taken and raised by his uncle with his cousins. As a reward for
Muhammad Ali's hard working skills, his uncle Çorbaci gave him the rank
of "[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]"
for the collection of taxes in the town of Kavala. After his promising
success in collecting taxes, he gained 2nd Commander rank under his
cousin Sarechesme Halil Agha in the Kavala Volunteer Contingent that
was sent to reoccupy Egypt following [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]'s withdrawal. He married Ali Agha's daughter, Emine Nosratli, a wealthy widow of [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط].
In 1801, the Albanian commander of the Ottoman army was sent to reoccupy Egypt following a brief [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط].
He was second in command under his cousin Sarechesme Halil Agha in the
Kavala Volunteer Contingent, which was itself part of a larger Ottoman
force. The expedition landed at [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] in the spring of 1801.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
The French withdrawal left a [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] in the Ottoman province. [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] power had been weakened, but not destroyed, and Ottoman forces clashed with the Mamluks for power.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] During this period of anarchy Muhammad Ali used his Albanian troops to play both sides, gaining power and prestige for himself.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] As the conflict drew on, the local populace grew weary of the power struggle. Led by the [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط],
a group of prominent Egyptians demanded that the Wāli (governor)
(Arabic: والي), Ahmad Kurshid Pasha, step down and Muhammad Ali be
installed as the new Wāli in 1805.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
The Ottoman sultan, [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط],
was not in a position to oppose Muhammad Ali’s ascension thereby
allowing Muhammad Ali to set about consolidating his position. During
the infighting between the Ottomans and Mamluks between 1801 and 1805,
Muhammad Ali had carefully acted to gain the support of the general
public.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
By appearing as the champion of the people Muhammad Ali was able to
forestall popular opposition until he had consolidated power.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
Mamluk Cavalryman
The Mamluks still posed the greatest threat to Muhammad Ali. They
had controlled Egypt for more than 600 years, and over that time they
had extended their rule extensively throughout Egypt. Muhammad Ali’s
approach was to eliminate the Mamluk leadership then move against the
rank-in-file. In 1811, Muhammad Ali invited the Mamluk leaders to a
celebration in honor of his son, Isma'il, being appointed to lead a
military expedition into [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] held at the [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]. When the Mamluks arrived, they were trapped and killed.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] After the leaders were killed, Muhammad Ali dispatched his army throughout Egypt to rout the remainder of the Mamluk forces.
Muhammad Ali transformed Egypt into a regional power which he saw as
the natural successor to the decaying Ottoman Empire. He summed up his
vision for Egypt as follows:
"I am well aware that the (Ottoman) Empire is heading by the day
toward destruction...On her ruins I will build a vast kingdom... up to
the Euphrates and the Tigris."[[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]]
[[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]] Reforming Egypt
Sultan Selim III had recognized the need to reform and modernize the
Ottoman Empire along European lines to ensure that his state could
compete. Selim III, however, faced stiff local opposition from an
entrenched clergy and military apparatus. Consequently, Selim III was
deposed and ultimately killed for his efforts. Muhammad Ali, too,
recognized the need to modernize, and unlike Selim, he had dispatched
his chief rival, giving him a free hand to mimic Selim’s attempted
reforms.
Muhammad Ali’s goal was to establish a powerful, European-style state.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
In order to do that, he had to reorganize Egyptian society, streamline
the economy, train a professional bureaucracy, and build a modern
military.
His first task was to secure a revenue stream for Egypt. To
accomplish this, Muhammad Ali ‘nationalized’ all the land of Egypt,
thereby officially owning all the production of the land. He
accomplished the state annexation of property by raising taxes on the ‘[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]’
throughout Egypt. The new taxes were intentionally high and when the
tax-farmers could not meet the demanded payments, Muhammad Ali
confiscated the lands.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
In practice, Muhammad Ali’s land reform amounted to a [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
on trade in Egypt. He required all producers to sell their goods to the
state. The state in turn resold Egyptian goods, within Egypt and to
foreign markets, and retained the surplus. The practice proved very
profitable for Egypt with the cultivation of [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]. The new-found profits also extend down to the individual farmers, as the average wage increased fourfold.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
In addition to bolstering the agricultural sector, Muhammad Ali
built an industrial base for Egypt. His motivation for doing so was
primarily an effort to build a modern military. Consequently, he
focused on weapons production. Factories based in Cairo produced [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] and [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]. While a [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] he built in [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
and began construction of a navy. By the end of the 1830s, Egypt’s war
industries had constructed nine 100-gun warships and were turning out
1,600 muskets a month.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
The industrial innovations were not limited weapons production,
however. Muhammad Ali established a textile industry in an effort to
compete with European industries and produce greater revenues for
Egypt. While the textile industry was not successful, the entire
endeavor employed tens of thousands of Egyptians.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
Additionally, by hiring European managers, he was able to introduce
industrial training to the Egyptian population. To staff his new
industries Muhammad Ali employed a [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
labor system. The peasantry objected to these conscriptions and many
ran away from their villages to avoid being taken, sometimes fleeing as
far away as [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط].
A number of them maimed themselves so as to be unsuitable for combat:
common ways of self-maiming were blinding an eye with rat poison and
cutting off a finger of the right hand, which usually worked the firing
mechanism of a rifle.
Beyond building a functioning, industrial economy, Muhammad Ali also
made an effort to train a professional military and bureaucracy. He
sent promising citizens to [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
to study. Again the driving force behind the effort was to build a
European-style army. Students were sent to study European languages,
primarily French, so they could in turn translate military manuals into
Arabic. He then used both educated Egyptians along with imported
European experts to establish schools and hospitals in Egypt. The
European education also provided talented Egyptians with a means of
social mobility.
A byproduct of Muhammad Ali’s training program was the establishment of a professional [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط].
Establishing an efficient central bureaucracy was an essential
prerequisite for the success of Muhammad Ali’s other reforms. In the
process of destroying the Mamluks, the Wāli had to fill the
governmental roles that the Mamluks had previously filled. In doing so,
Muhammad Ali kept all central authority for himself. He then
partitioned Egypt into ten provenances responsible for collecting taxes
and maintaining order.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
Muhammad Ali installed his sons into most key positions; however, his
reforms did offer Egyptians opportunities beyond agriculture and
industry.
Current scholarship is divided on the proper spelling of his name.
Its spelling in Arabic and Ottoman Turkish was consistent: محمد. To
those who consider him to be the father of a modern Egyptian nation,
having modernized the military and infrastructure, he was Muhammad
(Mohammed, etc), the way his name would have been pronounced in Arabic,
the primary language of Egypt. To those who consider him to be an
Ottoman Albanian military leader who used Egypt as his base, creating a
dynasty that spanned far beyond Egypt, he was Mehmed (Mehmet, etc), the
way his name would have been pronounced by him and the other
Turkish-speaking leadership. Again, as his name is written only one way
in Arabic, this distinction is not an issue for writings in Arabic, but
only for those writing in a Roman alphabet.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
[[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]] Early life
Muhammad Ali was born in [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط], in today's [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] (then apart of the [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]) to [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] parents.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط][ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط][ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط][ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط][ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
According to the many French, English and other western journalists who
interviewed him, and according to people who knew him, the only
language he knew fluently was [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط].[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] He was also competent in [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط].[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] The son of a [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] and [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] named Ibrahim Agha, his mother Zainab Agha was his uncle Husain Agha's daughter. Muhammad Ali was the nephew of the "Ayan of [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]"
(Çorbaci) Husain Agha. When his father died at a young age, Muhammad
was taken and raised by his uncle with his cousins. As a reward for
Muhammad Ali's hard working skills, his uncle Çorbaci gave him the rank
of "[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]"
for the collection of taxes in the town of Kavala. After his promising
success in collecting taxes, he gained 2nd Commander rank under his
cousin Sarechesme Halil Agha in the Kavala Volunteer Contingent that
was sent to reoccupy Egypt following [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]'s withdrawal. He married Ali Agha's daughter, Emine Nosratli, a wealthy widow of [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط].
In 1801, the Albanian commander of the Ottoman army was sent to reoccupy Egypt following a brief [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط].
He was second in command under his cousin Sarechesme Halil Agha in the
Kavala Volunteer Contingent, which was itself part of a larger Ottoman
force. The expedition landed at [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] in the spring of 1801.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
The French withdrawal left a [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] in the Ottoman province. [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] power had been weakened, but not destroyed, and Ottoman forces clashed with the Mamluks for power.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] During this period of anarchy Muhammad Ali used his Albanian troops to play both sides, gaining power and prestige for himself.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] As the conflict drew on, the local populace grew weary of the power struggle. Led by the [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط],
a group of prominent Egyptians demanded that the Wāli (governor)
(Arabic: والي), Ahmad Kurshid Pasha, step down and Muhammad Ali be
installed as the new Wāli in 1805.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
The Ottoman sultan, [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط],
was not in a position to oppose Muhammad Ali’s ascension thereby
allowing Muhammad Ali to set about consolidating his position. During
the infighting between the Ottomans and Mamluks between 1801 and 1805,
Muhammad Ali had carefully acted to gain the support of the general
public.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
By appearing as the champion of the people Muhammad Ali was able to
forestall popular opposition until he had consolidated power.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
Mamluk Cavalryman
The Mamluks still posed the greatest threat to Muhammad Ali. They
had controlled Egypt for more than 600 years, and over that time they
had extended their rule extensively throughout Egypt. Muhammad Ali’s
approach was to eliminate the Mamluk leadership then move against the
rank-in-file. In 1811, Muhammad Ali invited the Mamluk leaders to a
celebration in honor of his son, Isma'il, being appointed to lead a
military expedition into [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] held at the [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]. When the Mamluks arrived, they were trapped and killed.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] After the leaders were killed, Muhammad Ali dispatched his army throughout Egypt to rout the remainder of the Mamluk forces.
Muhammad Ali transformed Egypt into a regional power which he saw as
the natural successor to the decaying Ottoman Empire. He summed up his
vision for Egypt as follows:
"I am well aware that the (Ottoman) Empire is heading by the day
toward destruction...On her ruins I will build a vast kingdom... up to
the Euphrates and the Tigris."[[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]]
[[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]] Reforming Egypt
Sultan Selim III had recognized the need to reform and modernize the
Ottoman Empire along European lines to ensure that his state could
compete. Selim III, however, faced stiff local opposition from an
entrenched clergy and military apparatus. Consequently, Selim III was
deposed and ultimately killed for his efforts. Muhammad Ali, too,
recognized the need to modernize, and unlike Selim, he had dispatched
his chief rival, giving him a free hand to mimic Selim’s attempted
reforms.
Muhammad Ali’s goal was to establish a powerful, European-style state.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
In order to do that, he had to reorganize Egyptian society, streamline
the economy, train a professional bureaucracy, and build a modern
military.
His first task was to secure a revenue stream for Egypt. To
accomplish this, Muhammad Ali ‘nationalized’ all the land of Egypt,
thereby officially owning all the production of the land. He
accomplished the state annexation of property by raising taxes on the ‘[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]’
throughout Egypt. The new taxes were intentionally high and when the
tax-farmers could not meet the demanded payments, Muhammad Ali
confiscated the lands.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
In practice, Muhammad Ali’s land reform amounted to a [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
on trade in Egypt. He required all producers to sell their goods to the
state. The state in turn resold Egyptian goods, within Egypt and to
foreign markets, and retained the surplus. The practice proved very
profitable for Egypt with the cultivation of [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]. The new-found profits also extend down to the individual farmers, as the average wage increased fourfold.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
In addition to bolstering the agricultural sector, Muhammad Ali
built an industrial base for Egypt. His motivation for doing so was
primarily an effort to build a modern military. Consequently, he
focused on weapons production. Factories based in Cairo produced [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] and [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]. While a [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط] he built in [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
and began construction of a navy. By the end of the 1830s, Egypt’s war
industries had constructed nine 100-gun warships and were turning out
1,600 muskets a month.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
The industrial innovations were not limited weapons production,
however. Muhammad Ali established a textile industry in an effort to
compete with European industries and produce greater revenues for
Egypt. While the textile industry was not successful, the entire
endeavor employed tens of thousands of Egyptians.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
Additionally, by hiring European managers, he was able to introduce
industrial training to the Egyptian population. To staff his new
industries Muhammad Ali employed a [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
labor system. The peasantry objected to these conscriptions and many
ran away from their villages to avoid being taken, sometimes fleeing as
far away as [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط].
A number of them maimed themselves so as to be unsuitable for combat:
common ways of self-maiming were blinding an eye with rat poison and
cutting off a finger of the right hand, which usually worked the firing
mechanism of a rifle.
Beyond building a functioning, industrial economy, Muhammad Ali also
made an effort to train a professional military and bureaucracy. He
sent promising citizens to [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
to study. Again the driving force behind the effort was to build a
European-style army. Students were sent to study European languages,
primarily French, so they could in turn translate military manuals into
Arabic. He then used both educated Egyptians along with imported
European experts to establish schools and hospitals in Egypt. The
European education also provided talented Egyptians with a means of
social mobility.
A byproduct of Muhammad Ali’s training program was the establishment of a professional [ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط].
Establishing an efficient central bureaucracy was an essential
prerequisite for the success of Muhammad Ali’s other reforms. In the
process of destroying the Mamluks, the Wāli had to fill the
governmental roles that the Mamluks had previously filled. In doing so,
Muhammad Ali kept all central authority for himself. He then
partitioned Egypt into ten provenances responsible for collecting taxes
and maintaining order.[ندعوك للتسجيل في المنتدى أو التعريف بنفسك لمعاينة هذا الرابط]
Muhammad Ali installed his sons into most key positions; however, his
reforms did offer Egyptians opportunities beyond agriculture and
industry.
